Transformation Deferred: Disparate Development in Post-Apartheid South Africa (1994-2004)
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Published:
Feb 29, 2024
Keywords:
Political Economy, South Africa, Race, Class, Development
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Abstract
The role of the state in promoting development and economic transformation in South Africa has been the subject of diverse viewpoints and discussions. With the transition to democracy in 1994, progress on various socio-economic indicators has been achieved due to the macro-level programs instituted by the African National Congress (ANC) led government. The current economic situation in South Africa, influenced by globalization, involves various powerful entities such as global and national capital, the apartheid elite (mostly white), and the emerging black elite connected to the ANC. These dynamics have an intricate impact on the working class, reshaping power structures in the country. This article delves into the developmental impact of key socio-economic programs of the ANC, notably the Reconstruction and Development Program and the Growth, Employment, and Redistribution Plan. It explicitly examines access to basic services like housing, electricity, water, and sanitation, shedding light on their impact. The focus also extends to the persistent issues of unemployment and resulting income inequalities within South Africa. These programs' effects on these societal challenges are thoroughly analyzed. Ultimately, the article highlights the starkly unequal developmental outcomes, showcasing how significant portions of South African society remain excluded despite these initiatives.
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Vivek N.D. (2024). Transformation Deferred: Disparate Development in Post-Apartheid South Africa (1994-2004). PanAfrican Journal of Governance and Development (PJGD), 5(1), 128-155. https://doi.org/10.46404/panjogov.v5i1.5364
Section
Research-based/ Original Articles
References
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Bhorat, H., & Kanbur, R. (2006). Poverty and Policy in Post Apartheid South Africa. Cape Town: HSRC Press.
Bhorat, H., Westhuizen, C. v., & Jacobs, T. (2009). Income and Non-Income Inequality in Post Apartheid South Africa: What are the Drivers and Possible Policy Interventions? Development Policy Research Unit (DPRU) Working Paper 09/138.
Bond, P. (2000). Elite Transition: From Apartheid to Neoliberalism in South Africa. London, Sterling, Virginia: Pluto Press.
Bond, P., & Khosa, M. (1999). An RDP Policy Audit. Pretoria: HSRC Press.
BusinessMap. (2001). Black Economic Empowerment: A Moving Experience.
Charlton, S., & Kihato, C. (2006). Reaching the Poor? An Analysis of the Influences on the Evolution of South Africa's Housing Program. In U. Pillay, R. Tomilson, & J. d. Toit, Democracy and Delivery: Urban Policy in South Africa. Cape Town: HSRC Press.
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Klien, N. (2008). The Shock Doctrine. London: Penguin Books.
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Marais, H. (2001). South Africa: Limits to Change- The Political Economy of Transition. London, New York: Zed Books.
Marais, H. (2011). South Africa Pushed to the Limit: The Political Economy of Change. London, New York: Zed Books.
Matose, M. T. (2013). South Africa: Social mobility for a few? Oslo: NOREF: Norwegian Peacebuilding Resource Centre. Retrieved from https://www.files.ethz.ch/isn/172098/c4bf541cc6e80e801a3efa4f5dab4bc4.pdf
Mbeki, T. (1996). Address on the occasion of the Annual President’s Award for Export Achievement.
McDonald, D., & Pape, J. (2002). Cost Recovery and the Crisis of Service Delivery in South Africa. Pretoria: HSRC Press.
Moleke, P. (2006). The State of Labour Market De-Racialisation. In S. Buhlungu, J. Daniel, R. Southall, & J. Lutchman, State of the Nation: South Africa 2005-2006. Cape Town: HSRC Press.
Murray Leibbrandt, I. W. (2009). Employment and Inequality Outcomes in South Africa. Cape Town: Southern Africa Labour and Development Research Unit (SALDRU) and School of Economics, University of Cape Town. Retrieved from https://www.oecd.org/els/emp/45282868.pdf
Nattrass, N. (1994). Politics and Economics in ANC Economic Policy. African Affairs, pp. 343-359. doi:https://www.jstor.org/stable/723367
Padayachee, V. (2006). Development Discourses in Post-Apartheid South Africa. In V. Padayachee, The Development Decade? Economic and Social Change in South Africa 1994-2004. Cape Town: HSRC Press.
Pitcher, A. (2012). Was Privatisation Necessary and Did It Work? The Case of South Africa. Review of African Political Economy, 39(132), 243-260. Retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/stable/42003274
Satgar, V. (2012). Beyond Marikana: The Post Apartheid African State. African Spectrum, 2(3), 33-62. Retrieved November 3, 2022, from https://www.jstor.org/stable/23350450
Seekings, J., & Nattrass, N. (2002). Class, Distribution and Redistribution in Post Apartheid South Africa. Transformation, 50(1), 1-30. Retrieved May 27, 2022, from https://muse.jhu.edu/article/40997/pdf
Simone Schotte, R. Z. (2017). Social stratification, life chances and vulnerability to poverty in South Africa. Cape Town: Southern Africa Labour and Development Research Unit, University of Cape Town. Retrieved from https://opensaldru.uct.ac.za/bitstream/handle/11090/883/2017_208_Saldruwp.pdf?sequence=1
South Africa Institute of Race Relations. (1995). South Africa Survey 1995. Retrieved June 3, 2022, from https://www.sahistory.org.za/sites/default/files/SAIRR%20Survey%201995-96.pdf
Southall, R. (2004). The ANC and Black Capitalism in South Africa. Review of African Political Economy, 31(100), 313-328. Retrieved May 23, 2022, from https://www.jstor.org/stable/4006894
Statistics South Africa. (1999). Report on October Household Survey.
Tapscott, C. (1997). Current Development Discourses in South Africa. Africanus, 27(2), 86-95. Retrieved May 27, 2022, from https://journals.co.za/doi/pdf/10.10520/AJA0304615X_168
Terreblanche, S. J. (1999). The Ideological Journey of South Africa: From the RDP to the GEAR Macroeconomic Plan. Special ME99 workshop on Globalization, Poverty, Women and the Church in South Africa. Retrieved May 23, 2022, from https://www.ekon.sun.ac.za/sampieterreblanche/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/SJT-1999-From-RDP-to-GEAR.pdf
Tinarwo, O. M. (2021). From Apartheid to Democracy: Patterns and Trends of Inequality in South Africa. Southern African Journal of Demography, 104-133. doi:https://www.jstor.org/stable/27125725
Whiteford, A., & Seventer, D. (2000). South Africa's Changing Income Distribution in the 1990s. Studies in Economics and Econometrics, 24(3), 7-30.
Adler, G., & Webster, E. (2000). Consolidating Democracy in a Liberalizing World: Trade Unions and Democratization in South Africa. In G. Adler, & E. Webster, Trade Unions and Democratization in South Africa 1985-1997. New York: St. Martin's Press.
African National Congress. (1994). A Basic Guide to the Reconstruction and Development Programme. Retrieved June 1, 2022, from https://www.anc1912.org.za/policy-documents-1994-a-basic-guide-to-the-reconstruction-and-development-programme/
African National Congress. (1996). Growth, Employment and Redistribution: A Macroeconomic Strategy. Retrieved June 1, 2022, from https://www.treasury.gov.za/publications/other/gear/chapters.pdf
African National Congress. (2003). Discussion Document: Towards a Ten Year Review. Retrieved June 1, 2022, from https://www.gov.za/sites/default/files/10year.pdf
Altman, M. (2005). The State of Employment. In J. Daniel, R. Southall, & J. Lutchman, State of the Nation: South Africa 2004-2005. Cape Town: HSRC Press.
Atkinson, D. (2007). Taking to the Streets: Has Developmental Local Government Failed in South Africa? In S. Buhlungu, J. Daniel, R. Southall, & J. Lutchman, State of the Nation: South Africa 2006-2007. Cape Town: HSRC Press.
Bhorat, H. (2004). Employment and Unemployment Trends in Post Apartheid South Africa. Paper prepared for the Presidency 10-Year Cabinet Review Process.
Bhorat, H., & Kanbur, R. (2006). Poverty and Policy in Post Apartheid South Africa. Cape Town: HSRC Press.
Bhorat, H., Westhuizen, C. v., & Jacobs, T. (2009). Income and Non-Income Inequality in Post Apartheid South Africa: What are the Drivers and Possible Policy Interventions? Development Policy Research Unit (DPRU) Working Paper 09/138.
Bond, P. (2000). Elite Transition: From Apartheid to Neoliberalism in South Africa. London, Sterling, Virginia: Pluto Press.
Bond, P., & Khosa, M. (1999). An RDP Policy Audit. Pretoria: HSRC Press.
BusinessMap. (2001). Black Economic Empowerment: A Moving Experience.
Charlton, S., & Kihato, C. (2006). Reaching the Poor? An Analysis of the Influences on the Evolution of South Africa's Housing Program. In U. Pillay, R. Tomilson, & J. d. Toit, Democracy and Delivery: Urban Policy in South Africa. Cape Town: HSRC Press.
Cherian, J. (2012, October 5). South Africa: Ripples of Marikana. Frontline, 29(19). Retrieved May 27, 2022, from https://frontline.thehindu.com/world-affairs/article30167611.ece
Cheru, F. (2001). Overcoming Apartheid's Legacy: The Ascendancy of Neoliberalism in South Africa's Anti-Poverty Strategy. Third World Quarterly, pp. 505-527. doi:https://www.jstor.org/stable/3993354
Department of Education, Republic of South Africa. (2005, June 26). Freedom Charter. Celebrating 50 Years of the Freedom Charter 1955-2005. Retrieved May 27, 2022, from SAHistory: https://www.dffe.gov.za/sites/default/files/docs/publications/history_freedomcharter.pdf
Department of Water Affairs and Forestry. (2004). A History of the First Decade of Water Services Delivery in South Africa 1994 to 2004. Retrieved June 3, 2022, from https://www.gov.za/sites/default/files/gcis_document/201409/dwafirstdecade070720060.pdf
Gelb, S., & Webster, E. (2004). Jobs and Equity: The Social Democratic Challenge. South African Labour Bulletin, 28(6). Retrieved from https://www.southafricanlabourbulletin.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/Jobs-and-equity.-the-social-democratic-challegne_0.pdf
Gumede, W. (2008). Thabo Mbeki and the Battle for the Soul of the ANC. London, New York: Zed Books.
Hemson, D., & O'Donovan, M. (2006). Putting Numbers to the Scorecard: Presidential Targets and the State of Delivery. In S. Buhlungu, J. Daniel, R. Southall, & J. Lutchman, State of the Nation: South Africa 2005-2006. Cape Town: HSRC Press.
Houston, G. (2001). Interest Group Participation and Democratisation: The Role of National Economic and Development Council. In M. Khosa, Empowerment Through Economic Transformation. Cape Town: HSRC Press.
Jack, V. (2003). From the Starting Bloc: A Decade of Black Economic Empowerment- The Progress of Economic Empowerment from 1992-2002. Johannersberg: Empowerdex Pvt. Ltd. Retrieved June 3, 2022, from https://sarpn.org/documents/d0000875/docs/FromTheStartingBlocDecadeOfBEE_TheProgressOfEconomicEmpowerment.pdf
Khosa, M. (2002). Facts, Fiction and Fabrication: Service Delivery in South Africa Under Mandela. Urban Forum, 13(1), 38–66. Retrieved May 27, 2022, from https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12132-002-0002-5
Klien, N. (2008). The Shock Doctrine. London: Penguin Books.
Manuel, T. (2006, August). No Contradictions Between RDP and GEAR. ANC Today, 6(31), pp. 11-17.
Marais, H. (2001). South Africa: Limits to Change- The Political Economy of Transition. London, New York: Zed Books.
Marais, H. (2011). South Africa Pushed to the Limit: The Political Economy of Change. London, New York: Zed Books.
Matose, M. T. (2013). South Africa: Social mobility for a few? Oslo: NOREF: Norwegian Peacebuilding Resource Centre. Retrieved from https://www.files.ethz.ch/isn/172098/c4bf541cc6e80e801a3efa4f5dab4bc4.pdf
Mbeki, T. (1996). Address on the occasion of the Annual President’s Award for Export Achievement.
McDonald, D., & Pape, J. (2002). Cost Recovery and the Crisis of Service Delivery in South Africa. Pretoria: HSRC Press.
Moleke, P. (2006). The State of Labour Market De-Racialisation. In S. Buhlungu, J. Daniel, R. Southall, & J. Lutchman, State of the Nation: South Africa 2005-2006. Cape Town: HSRC Press.
Murray Leibbrandt, I. W. (2009). Employment and Inequality Outcomes in South Africa. Cape Town: Southern Africa Labour and Development Research Unit (SALDRU) and School of Economics, University of Cape Town. Retrieved from https://www.oecd.org/els/emp/45282868.pdf
Nattrass, N. (1994). Politics and Economics in ANC Economic Policy. African Affairs, pp. 343-359. doi:https://www.jstor.org/stable/723367
Padayachee, V. (2006). Development Discourses in Post-Apartheid South Africa. In V. Padayachee, The Development Decade? Economic and Social Change in South Africa 1994-2004. Cape Town: HSRC Press.
Pitcher, A. (2012). Was Privatisation Necessary and Did It Work? The Case of South Africa. Review of African Political Economy, 39(132), 243-260. Retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/stable/42003274
Satgar, V. (2012). Beyond Marikana: The Post Apartheid African State. African Spectrum, 2(3), 33-62. Retrieved November 3, 2022, from https://www.jstor.org/stable/23350450
Seekings, J., & Nattrass, N. (2002). Class, Distribution and Redistribution in Post Apartheid South Africa. Transformation, 50(1), 1-30. Retrieved May 27, 2022, from https://muse.jhu.edu/article/40997/pdf
Simone Schotte, R. Z. (2017). Social stratification, life chances and vulnerability to poverty in South Africa. Cape Town: Southern Africa Labour and Development Research Unit, University of Cape Town. Retrieved from https://opensaldru.uct.ac.za/bitstream/handle/11090/883/2017_208_Saldruwp.pdf?sequence=1
South Africa Institute of Race Relations. (1995). South Africa Survey 1995. Retrieved June 3, 2022, from https://www.sahistory.org.za/sites/default/files/SAIRR%20Survey%201995-96.pdf
Southall, R. (2004). The ANC and Black Capitalism in South Africa. Review of African Political Economy, 31(100), 313-328. Retrieved May 23, 2022, from https://www.jstor.org/stable/4006894
Statistics South Africa. (1999). Report on October Household Survey.
Tapscott, C. (1997). Current Development Discourses in South Africa. Africanus, 27(2), 86-95. Retrieved May 27, 2022, from https://journals.co.za/doi/pdf/10.10520/AJA0304615X_168
Terreblanche, S. J. (1999). The Ideological Journey of South Africa: From the RDP to the GEAR Macroeconomic Plan. Special ME99 workshop on Globalization, Poverty, Women and the Church in South Africa. Retrieved May 23, 2022, from https://www.ekon.sun.ac.za/sampieterreblanche/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/SJT-1999-From-RDP-to-GEAR.pdf
Tinarwo, O. M. (2021). From Apartheid to Democracy: Patterns and Trends of Inequality in South Africa. Southern African Journal of Demography, 104-133. doi:https://www.jstor.org/stable/27125725
Whiteford, A., & Seventer, D. (2000). South Africa's Changing Income Distribution in the 1990s. Studies in Economics and Econometrics, 24(3), 7-30.