Assessment of Challenges of Governance and Democratic Consolidation in Lesotho, 1993-2022
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Published:
Aug 31, 2024
Keywords:
Governance, Democratic Consolidation, Civil Society, Lesotho, Africa
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Abstract
The Kingdom of Lesotho is beset by multiple challenges that hinder a full process of democratic consolidation. Like many other African countries, Lesotho is trapped in a myriad of challenges, including the politicization of independent institutions, such as the judiciary and security institutions, that contribute to perennial political instabilities and rampant corruption. Qualitative research was used to examine the challenges of democratic consolidation in Lesotho from the year 1993 to 2022. This paper, historically, using secondary data, uncovers the factors that continue to impede democratic consolidation in Lesotho from the period of fragile democracy in 1993 to the present unstable coalition governments. The central contention in the paper is that ever since Lesotho was declared a democratic state in 1993, the democratization process has been slow as there have been perpetual instabilities, lack of service delivery such as infrastructure, unemployment, and high rates of nepotism in the public sector that undermine sustainable democracy. Recommendations are that the political rights of citizens should be increased, civil society should be empowered, and the military should be put under civil control.
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Matsilo Elizabeth Nkabane, & Nengieh Lizzie Wantchami. (2024). Assessment of Challenges of Governance and Democratic Consolidation in Lesotho, 1993-2022. PanAfrican Journal of Governance and Development (PJGD), 5(2), 3-26. https://doi.org/10.46404/panjogov.v5i2.5699
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References
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Institut für Höhere Studien - Institute for Advanced Studies (IHS) Josefstädter Straße
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https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/lesotho/overview.
Youth and Women participation in Lesotho: The case of putting Youth and Women at the Centre of Inclusive Growth (PYWIEG) (N.D), Democracy Works Foundation.
African Voices (1996). Democratization in Africa: A Preliminary Assessment. African Voices: A Newsletter on Democracy and Governance in Africa. USAID Bureau for Africa, Office of Sustainable Development, Volume 5, Number 2.
Arinze, N. (2013). The Challenges Facing Democratic Consolidation in the Democratic Republic of Congo.Journal of Studies in Social Sciences Volume 3, Number 2, 113–128, ISSN 2201-4624
African Development Bank (2006). Kingdom of Lesotho Country Governance Profile, AFDB.
Akinrinmade, (2013). An Assessment of the National Assembly in the fight against corruption in Nigeria. University of Ilro, Nigeria.
Amin, M. E. (2005). Social Science Research: Conception, Methodology & Analysis. Kampala, Uganda, Makerere University Printer.
Amnesty International Report (2022)./(2023). Retrieved on 10 September 2023. Accessed from https://reliefweb.int/report/lesotho/lesotho-authorities-must-tackle-police-brutality-torture-and-unlawful-killings-and-after-election
Bates, R. (2010). Democracy in Africa: A very short History.Harvard Library.
Bhila, T. (2022). Political Party Youth Exclusion: Case of Lesotho. The Research Journal,8(3).
Bozonelos, D, Franco, J and Omae, M.(2022).Introduction to Comparative Government and Politics.Sacramento: Academic Senate for California community colleges.
Buti, M.(2018). The Impacts of a Coalition Government on Investment Opportunities and Socio-political Development in Lesotho.
Cervenka, Z. (1987). The Effects of Militarisation of Africa on Human Rights. Accessed from www.jstor.org
Chelete, M. (2005). Lesotho's Transition to Democratic Rule: An Era of Fragile Democracy. Accessed https://researchspace.ukzn.ac.za
Dahl, R.A. (2005). What Political Institutions Does Large Scale Democracy Require? Political Science Quarterly, 120(2).
Diamond, L. M. (1990).Promoting democracy in the 1990s: Actors and Instruments, Issues and Imperatives, New York: The Carnegie Commission.
Linz, J. and Alfred, S. (1996). Problems of Democratic Transition and Consolidation.Southern Europe, South America, and Post-Communist Europe.Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, pp1479
Linz, J. and Alfred, S. (1996). Towards Consolidated Democracies.Journal of Democracy, Vol.7, Issue 2, pp. 14 -33.
Gay, J.(2003 ). The State of Democracy in Lesotho; A Report on the 2003 Barometer Survey AfroBarometer.
France24 (2017). France 24. Retrieved 10 September 2023 from https://www.france24.com/en/20170909-lesotho-military-politics-make-dangerous-mix
Gorokhovskaia,(2017). Oxford Bibliographies. [Online] Available at:https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com[Accessed May 2023].
Gunther, Richard, P. Nikiforos Diamandouros, and Hans-Jürgen Puhle (1995). "Introduction, "The Politics of Democratic Consolidation: Southern Europe in Comparative Perspective, eds Richard Gunther et al. (Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University Press) 1–32
Hailu, S. (2017). Challenges and prospects of Democratization process in Ethiopia. International Journal of African and Asian Studies.Vol 40.
Hermet, G. (1991). Introduction: The Age of Democracy. International Social Science Journal. No.128
Huntington, S. (1991). "The Third Wave: Democratisation in the Late Twenties Century". Norman: University of Oklahoma Press.
Ihonvbere J « The crisis of democratic consolidation in Zambia », Civilisations [Online],(1996), Online since 29 June 2009, connection on 30 April 2019. URL: http:// journals.openedition.org/civilisations/1570;DOI: 10.4000/civilisations.1570.
Ismail, H. M. (2023). Colonialism and a history of oppression in Africa: Scenes from selected African novels. Research Journal in Advanced Humanities, 4(3).https://doi.org/10.58256/rjah.v4i3.1249
Kali, M. (2022).Rebellious civil society and democratic consolidation in Lesotho.Journal of Social and Economic Development, volume 24, p.565–577.https://doi.org/10.1007/s40847-022-00189-x
Kasapoviç, M. & Dieter, N. (1996). “Wahlsysteme und Systemwechsel in Osteuropa,” Systemwechsel 2: Die Institutionalisierung der Demokratie, eds Wolfgang Merkel, Eberhard Sandschneider, and Dieter Segert (Opladen: Leske + Budrich) 213–59.
Lesotho Country Report BTI(2014). Available at http://www-bti-project.org. [Accessed August 2023]
Likoti, F . K (2008 ). The Challenges of Parliamentary Democracy in Lesotho: 1993 -2007. International. Journal of Development Management.
Lesotho National Assembly (2015). Interparliamentary Union. Available at http://archive.ipu.org
Mainwaring, S., Guillermo O'Donnell, & J. Samuel Valenzuela (1992). "Introduction," Issues in Democratic Consolidation: The New South American Democracies in Comparative Perspective, eds Scott Mainwaring et al. (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press) 1–16.
Malephane, L. (2015). Contesting and turning over power: Implications for consolidation of democracy in Lesotho. Afrobarometer Policy Paper No. 17.
Matlosa, K. (1998). Democracy and Conflict in Post-apartheid Southern Africa; Dillemas of Social change in Small states. International Affairs, pp. 319–337.
Merkel, Wolfgang, Eberhard Sandschneider, and Dieter Segert (1996). “Einleitung: Die Institutionalisierung der Demokratie,” Systemwechsel 2: Die Institutionalisierung der Demokratie, eds Wolfgang Merkel, Eberhard Sandschneider, and Dieter Segert (Opladen: Leske + Budrich) 9–36.
Mindzie, M. A.(2009).Transitional Justice, democratization and the rule of law, in C. L Sriram and S. Pillay (eds.) Peace Versus justice? The dilemma of transitional Justice in Africa Scottsville: UKZN.
Monyake, M.(2020).Democracy in Africa.[Online] Available at: http://Democracyinafrica.org/corruption-destruction-lesotho/[Accessed 2023].
Mothibe, M. (1998). Bureaucratic Corruption in Lesotho: Causes, magnitude, impact and controls. Lesotho Law Journal: A Journal of Law and Development, pp. 299–315.
Mothibe,T.(2017). Political Leadership Challenges in Lesotho- A Cause of Political Instability. Maseru: Open Society Initiative for Southern Africa.
Ngwawi, M. (2014, 8 September). Southern African Research and Documentation Center. Retrieved 16 September 2023, from https://www.sardc.net/en/southern-african-news-features/a-historical-perspective-of-lesothos-political-crisis/
Nyane, H. (2017). The Advent of coalition Politics and the crisis of Constitutionalism in Lesotho. In Thabane, Towards the Anatomy of Persistent Political Instability in Lesotho 1966 -2016 (pp. 75–100). Maseru: Open Society Initiative for Southern Africa.
Oche,(2003).Emerging Trends in Civil Society Struggles for Good Governance and Democracy after 1999 Democratic Transition in Nigeria.Ibadan: Vintage Publishers.
O’Donnell, G. (1992). “Transitions, Continuities, and Paradoxes,” Issues in Democratic Consolidation: The New South American Democracies in Comparative Perspective, eds Scott Mainwaring et al. (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press) 17–56
Olaitan, W. A. (1997). The State as Roadblock to Democracy: "12 June" and the Democratization Experience in Nigeria. Nigerian Journal of Social and Management Sciences. Vol.1, No.1
Olaita, W.A. (2001). The Future of Nigerian government and politics in Adefulu, R.A and Olaitan, W.A (eds) Issues in Nigerian government and politics. Ijebu-Ode: Radconsultancy.
Olaleye, W. (2004). Democratic Consolidation and Political Parties in Lesotho. EISA Publishers.
Oni, A. A. and Ozemhoka, A. M. (2014).Impact of public expenditure on the growth of the Nigerian economy.European Scientific Journal.Vol 10. No 28
Pherudi, M. (2018). The Assassination of the Military Commanders In Lesotho: Triggers and Reactions. Journal for Contemporary History. Volume 43, No 2, pp. 117 – 133.
Pherudi, M.(2022). Political instability in Lesotho: Causes and Possible Remedies. Pula: Botswana Journal of African Studies, Volume 34.
Prasad, R. (2014). Working towards a Sustainable Democracy in Lesotho, London: Commonwealth Secretariat, Melbourne House.
Przeworski, A. Alvarez, M., Cheibub, J.A., and Limongi, F. (1996). What makes democracies endure? Journal of Democracy, Vol.7, No. 1, pp. 39 -55.
Przeworski, A. (1991). Democracy and the market: Political and economic reforms in Eastern Europe and Latin America (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press).Rakolobe, M.(2019).Politicised Public Service and Corruption in Lesotho. Strategic Review for Southern Africa, 41(1).
Ratsimbaharison, A. M (2016). The obstacles and challenges to democratic consolidation in Madagascar (1992 -2009). International Journal of Political Science (IJPS), Volume 2, Issue 2, p. 1-17.
Sandbrook. (2000). Closing the Circle; Democratization and Development in Africa. Toronto.
Schedler, A. (1998). What is Democratic Consolidation? Journal of Democracy,9(2), 91–107.
Schedler, A. (1997). Expected Stability: Defining and Measuring Democratic Consolidation.
Institut für Höhere Studien - Institute for Advanced Studies (IHS) Josefstädter Straße
Schimmitter, P. C. (1992). The Consolidation of Democracy and Representation of Social Groups.
Schmitter, P. C. (1988). “The Consolidation of Political Democracy in Southern Europe,” Stanford and Florence: Standford University and European University Institute (unpublished manuscript).
Shale, V. & Matlosa, K.(2008). Managing Intra-party and Interparty conflicts in Lesotho.EISA training manual. Johannesburg.
Southhall, R. (2009). The Congress of the People: Challenges for South African Democracy. Available at http://tandfonline.com/actionjournalinformation
Sunkel, O. (1995). “Economic Reform and Democratic Viability,” The Consolidation of Democracy in Latin America, eds. Joseph S. Tulchin and Bernice Romero (Boulder and London: Lynne Rienner) 111–24
Tar, U. A. (2010).The challenges of democracy and democratization in Africa and the Middle East. Information, Society and Justice, Volume 3, No 2, p 81 - 94
Thomson, A. (2004). An Introduction to African Politics. 2nd Edition, London, Routledge
Thabane, M.(2017).Creation and Entrenchment of a Culture of Party- Politicizing Lesotho's Public Service, 1966-1985. In: Towards an Anatomy of Persistent Political Instability in Lesotho.Maseru: Open Society Initiative for Southern Africa, p. 286.
Tyson, L. (2006). Critical Theory Today: A User-Friendly Guide. Routledge
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (2012).Country Review of the Kingdom of Lesotho.Https://www.unodc.org/document/treaties/UNCAC/CountryVisitFinalReport/2014_01_16_Lesotho_Final_Country_Report.pdf
Valenzuela, J. S. (1992). “Democratic Consolidation in Post-Transitional Settings: Notion, Process, and Facilitating Conditions,” Issues in Democratic Consolidation: The New South American Democracies in Comparative Perspective, eds Scott Mainwaring et al. (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press) 57–104.
Waldrauch, H. (1996). “Was heißt demokratische Konsolidierung? Über einige theoretische Konsequenzen der osteuropäischen Regimewechsel,” Vienna: Institute for Advanced Studies (Political Science Series 36).
Weiner, M. (1987).Empirical Democratic Theory and the Transition from Authoritarianism to Democracy, PS 20(4) 861–6.Whitehead, L. (1989). “The Consolidation of Fragile Democracies: A Discussion with Illustrations,” Democracy in the Americas: Stopping the Pendulum, ed. Robert A. Pastor (New York and London: Holmes and Meier) 76–95.
World Bank (2023). The World Bank in Lesotho.
https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/lesotho/overview.
Youth and Women participation in Lesotho: The case of putting Youth and Women at the Centre of Inclusive Growth (PYWIEG) (N.D), Democracy Works Foundation.